How Much Is Considered A Good Salary in Germany [2026]
€3,500 net/month is widely considered a good salary in Germany in 2026. Here's what the numbers really mean for your lifestyle and city.
How Much Is Considered a Good Salary in Germany in 2026?
A good salary in Germany in 2026 starts at around €64,000 gross per year, which works out to roughly €3,400 to €3,600 net per month depending on your Steuerklasse (tax class) and personal circumstances. That’s the honest answer if someone asks me over a Feierabendbier.
But “good” is doing a lot of heavy lifting in that sentence. According to Destatis, the median gross salary in Germany sits at approximately €43,500 per year in 2026, meaning half of all employed workers earn below that threshold. What feels genuinely comfortable in Erfurt can feel tight in Frankfurt. A salary that lets a single person save aggressively in Leipzig might barely cover rent and groceries for a family of four in Munich.
Context shapes everything here. The moment your Steuerklasse changes, you have children, or you switch from gesetzliche Krankenversicherung (statutory health insurance) to private Krankenversicherung (private health insurance), the same gross figure produces a completely different Nettolohn (take-home pay after income tax and social contributions). According to Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis), inflation in Germany reached 3.3% in September 2026, hitting a new annual high and accelerating from 2.9% in August and 2.8% in July. Purchasing power matters more than ever right now. The number on your contract is never the number in your account.
This guide works through the real picture: gross-to-net figures, city-by-city cost differences, profession comparisons, and what different income levels actually feel like to live on day to day.
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis)
Germany’s Gross-to-Net Reality
Before anything else, let me show you what these salary numbers actually mean in your bank account. Germany’s social contribution system takes a substantial chunk before you ever see a euro. You’re paying into Rentenversicherung (pension insurance), Krankenversicherung (health insurance), Pflegeversicherung (long-term care insurance), and Arbeitslosenversicherung (unemployment insurance), plus income tax on top of that. Together, these can swallow anywhere from 35% to 45% of your gross salary depending on where you fall on the income scale.
Here’s a rough picture of what common gross salaries translate to net in 2026, assuming Steuerklasse I (single, no children, statutory health insurance):
A gross salary of €43,500 per year (the median) becomes roughly €2,300 to €2,450 net per month. That’s what half of Germany lives on. It’s manageable in many cities, genuinely tight in others.
At €64,000 gross, you’re taking home somewhere around €3,400 to €3,600 net per month. This is the range I’d call genuinely comfortable for a single person in most German cities, with room to save, travel occasionally, and not lie awake worrying about an unexpected car repair.
At €80,000 gross, your net lands around €4,100 to €4,300 per month. At this level, you’re doing well by almost any standard in Germany. You’re building savings, maybe investing, and the cost-of-living pressure that most people feel starts to ease noticeably.
Cross the €100,000 gross threshold and you’re looking at roughly €5,000 to €5,400 net monthly. Germany’s progressive tax system bites harder here, but the lifestyle this affords is genuinely excellent almost anywhere in the country.
One thing worth saying clearly: Steuerklasse matters enormously. A married couple where one partner earns significantly more than the other will often choose Steuerklasse III for the higher earner, which reduces the tax burden substantially on that income. If you’re in Steuerklasse III earning €64,000, your net can jump by several hundred euros per month compared to Steuerklasse I at the same gross. The numbers I’ve given above are a starting point, not a precise promise.
What Does “Good” Actually Mean?
I find it more useful to think about salary in Germany across three practical tiers rather than chasing a single magic number.
The first tier is what I’d call financially secure. This is roughly €43,500 to €55,000 gross per year for a single person. You cover rent, food, health insurance, and transport without stress. You probably save a little each month. You’re not splurging, but you’re not sweating either. This is where a significant portion of Germany’s working population sits, and in many cities it represents a decent, stable life.
The second tier is comfortably well-off, which for a single person I’d place between €55,000 and €85,000 gross. You save meaningfully, take proper holidays, maybe drive a decent car, and can absorb life’s surprises without going into Dispo (overdraft). For a family with two incomes in this range combined, life can feel genuinely spacious.
The third tier is high income territory, starting around €85,000 to €90,000 gross and above. At this level you’re in the top 15 to 20 percent of earners in Germany. Private Krankenversicherung starts making financial sense to consider. You’re likely investing beyond just your pension contributions. Financial stress, for practical purposes, largely disappears.
Where you actually land depends on far more than your salary figure alone.
How City and Region Change Everything
This is the part that surprises a lot of people moving to Germany, especially those coming from countries with a more centralized job market. Germany is genuinely polycentric. Munich, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cologne, and Düsseldorf each has its own economic ecosystem, its own cost structure, and its own idea of what a good salary looks like.
I’ve lived this personally. In Freiburg, I had a clear sense of what a comfortable salary felt like. Then I moved to Wolfsburg in 2022 and the same income felt noticeably more relaxed. Not because Wolfsburg pays more necessarily, but because the cost structure is different. Rent is lower, competition for housing is less fierce, and day-to-day costs are simply more reasonable.
Munich is the benchmark for expensive. Renting a decent two-bedroom apartment in a reasonable neighborhood will cost you €1,800 to €2,400 cold rent per month in 2026. A single person needs a net income of at least €3,000 to live without real financial pressure in Munich, and €3,500 to feel genuinely comfortable. This means that the median German salary, after taxes, leaves you stretched in Munich. A gross salary that would be excellent in Dortmund is merely adequate there.
Frankfurt is similarly demanding, particularly because of its housing market. The financial sector pulls salaries up, which in turn pulls prices up. Expect cold rents for a one-bedroom apartment in a decent location to run €1,400 to €1,900 per month. A good salary here realistically starts closer to €70,000 gross for a single person wanting financial breathing room.
Hamburg sits a step below Munich and Frankfurt in pure cost but is still firmly in the expensive category. The housing market has tightened considerably over the past decade. A one-bedroom apartment in a popular district like Eimsbüttel or Altona will set you back €1,300 to €1,700 monthly. €60,000 to €65,000 gross gets you to a genuinely comfortable single-person life here.
Berlin has a reputation as the affordable capital that has become increasingly misleading. Rents have climbed sharply. That said, in 2026 it remains more affordable than Munich or Hamburg, particularly if you’re willing to live in areas further from the center. A gross salary of €55,000 to €60,000 allows a single person to live well in most parts of Berlin, though the premium neighborhoods will test even that.
Cologne and Düsseldorf occupy a middle ground. Both are genuinely liveable cities with real cultural weight and without the extreme housing pressure you find in Munich or Hamburg. €55,000 to €60,000 gross puts a single person in a comfortable position in either city.
Cities like Leipzig, Dresden, Erfurt, and Magdeburg in the east, or Dortmund, Duisburg, and Bochum in the Ruhr, operate on a fundamentally different cost structure. Rents are lower, sometimes dramatically so. A gross salary of €45,000 to €50,000 can genuinely feel comfortable in these cities in a way that the same number simply cannot in Munich. The trade-off is sometimes (not always) lower local salary levels in certain industries, though this gap has been narrowing.
Wolfsburg, where I live now, is an interesting case. It’s a mid-sized city deeply shaped by Volkswagen’s presence, which means industrial and engineering salaries here tend to be strong relative to local costs. Housing is reasonable. A gross income of €55,000 to €60,000 genuinely goes a long way here compared to what it buys you in the south.
Salary by Profession in Germany 2026
Knowing the averages by profession gives you a more grounded reference point than abstract national medians. Here’s what different fields typically earn in 2026, expressed as gross annual salary for someone with a few years of experience rather than entry level or senior management.
IT and Software Engineering remains one of the strongest-paying fields in Germany. A software developer with three to five years of experience can reasonably expect €65,000 to €85,000 gross, with senior engineers and architects in large companies or tech hubs pushing €90,000 to €110,000. Germany has been actively recruiting internationally in this sector, and salaries have responded accordingly.
Medicine and healthcare splits sharply by role. A Facharzt (specialist doctor) in a hospital or private practice earns €80,000 to €130,000 gross depending on specialty and seniority. A Krankenpfleger or Krankenpflegerin (registered nurse) earns a far more modest €36,000 to €48,000, which is an ongoing source of political and social debate in Germany given the workload involved.
Engineering outside of software, so mechanical, electrical, civil, and automotive engineering, typically pays €55,000 to €80,000 for mid-level professionals. Automotive engineering specifically, particularly around companies like Volkswagen, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, and their supplier networks, tends toward the higher end.
Finance and banking shows a wide spread. A bank employee in a standard retail banking role might earn €40,000 to €55,000. Move into investment banking, corporate finance, or risk management at a major Frankfurt institution and €80,000 to €120,000 becomes realistic for experienced professionals.
Law in Germany follows a similar split. A Rechtsanwalt (lawyer) at a mid-sized regional firm might earn €55,000 to €75,000. At a major international law firm in Frankfurt or Munich, senior associates can reach €120,000 and above.
Teaching (Lehrer) at a German state school is publicly compensated and varies by Bundesland and grade level. Most full-time teachers in permanent positions earn between €52,000 and €72,000 gross, with Verbeamtung (civil servant status) adding significant non-salary benefits including a separate pension scheme.
Retail and logistics sit at the lower end. A full-time retail worker earns €28,000 to €38,000 gross in most cases. Logistics and warehouse roles follow a similar range, though skilled roles in logistics management climb higher.
Trades and skilled crafts (Handwerk) have become increasingly well-compensated as Germany faces a serious shortage of trained tradespeople. An experienced Elektriker, Klempner, or Heizungsbauer can earn €42,000 to €58,000 gross, and those running their own Betrieb (workshop or business) often earn more than that.
What Does “Good” Actually Mean in a German Context?
A gutes Gehalt (good salary) in Germany is one that covers all basic costs comfortably, allows for regular saving, funds a vacation or two per year, and does not produce anxiety when the rent goes out. That is the working definition I will use throughout this guide, because the German framing of “enough” is genuinely different from the Anglo-American one.
The problem is that the number attached to that definition shifts enormously depending on where you live, who you share costs with, and what stage of life you are in. Back in 2018 in Freiburg, around €38,000 gross felt adequate as a single person splitting a flat. Change the city, change the flatmate situation, and that same figure either suffocates you or leaves you with room to breathe. Numbers without context are nearly useless.
There is also a cultural dimension worth naming. Germany has a strong middle-class identity, and discussing salaries openly is still considered quite personal in most workplaces. This creates a strange situation where people often have no reliable anchor for what is normal, let alone what is good. Platforms like Gehalt.de and StepStone’s Gehaltsreport help, but they skew toward white-collar roles and can mislead anyone working in trades, logistics, retail, or the public sector.
It helps to think in three layers. There is the statistical baseline, what Destatis tells us the median worker earns. There is the subjective comfort threshold, what actually feels like enough after your Nettolohn lands. And there is the aspirational figure, what people typically mean when they say they want a good salary. These three rarely align, and a lot of financial stress in Germany comes from comparing yourself to the wrong reference point.
What we like
- Strong labour protections mean negotiated salaries come with genuine legal backing
- Comprehensive social contributions (health, pension, unemployment) are built into your package, reducing out-of-pocket risk
- Collective bargaining agreements (Tarifverträge) set salary floors in many industries, protecting against underpayment
- Regional cost variation means a modest salary in a smaller city can stretch further than a high salary in Munich
What we did not like
- High income tax and social contribution rates mean the gap between Brutto (gross) and Netto is often a shock for newcomers
- Salary transparency norms lag behind other European countries, making it genuinely hard to benchmark your own offer
- Rising inflation at 3.3% (September 2026) is eroding real purchasing power faster than many salary reviews are compensating for
The Gross-to-Net Reality in Germany
Nobody warns you clearly enough before that first German payslip lands. The gap between your Bruttogehalt (gross salary) and your Nettogehalt (take-home pay after all deductions) is substantial, and if you have been comparing German salary figures to what you earned elsewhere without accounting for this, your mental budget is probably wrong.
As a rough guide, a single person with no children in Steuerklasse I (the default tax class for unmarried employees) can expect to keep somewhere between 60% and 65% of their gross salary. The deductions that get there include Lohnsteuer (income tax), and the four main social insurance pillars: statutory health insurance (gesetzliche Krankenversicherung) at around 14.6% split between employer and employee, long-term care insurance (Pflegeversicherung) at around 3.4%, pension insurance (Rentenversicherung) at 18.6%, and unemployment insurance (Arbeitslosenversicherung) at 2.6%. The Solidaritätszuschlag (solidarity surcharge) was largely abolished in 2021 and only applies to very high earners now, so most people can ignore it.
What this looks like in practice for 2026: on a gross salary of €43,500 per year, a single person in Steuerklasse I takes home roughly €2,350 to €2,450 net per month. At €64,000 gross, that figure rises to around €3,400 to €3,600 net. Push it to €80,000 gross and you are looking at approximately €4,100 to €4,300 net. The marginal gain shrinks the higher you go, because Germany’s progressive tax rate reaches 42% for income above €66,761 in 2026, the threshold known as the Spitzensteuersatz (top tax rate).
Steuerklasse also shifts the picture significantly for couples. Married partners often split into Steuerklasse III and V, where the higher earner benefits from much lower withholding while the lower earner pays considerably more. It can look great on one payslip and genuinely painful on the other. The annual Steuererklärung (tax return) reconciles the difference, but it creates cash flow imbalances throughout the year. If you are in this situation, one session with a Steuerberater (tax advisor) is usually worth every euro.
Private health insurance adds another layer. Once your gross income exceeds the Versicherungspflichtgrenze (the threshold above which you can opt out of statutory insurance), which sits at approximately €69,300 per year in 2026, you become eligible to switch to private Krankenversicherung. Whether that switch makes financial sense depends on your age, health, and whether you have dependants. It is not automatically the better deal.
What Different Salary Levels Actually Feel Like
Numbers on a page only tell half the story. A gross salary figure means very little until you understand what it buys you in actual daily life in Germany, and that depends enormously on where you live and what your household looks like.
Around €30,000 to €40,000 Gross Per Year
This bracket covers a large share of the German workforce. Retail workers, administrative staff, early-career professionals in many industries, and jobs in the care sector commonly sit here. Net monthly income lands roughly between €1,800 and €2,300 for a single person in Steuerklasse I (the standard tax class for unmarried employees without children).
In smaller cities and towns, particularly in eastern Germany, this salary is workable if you rent a modest flat and live carefully. In Munich, Frankfurt, or Hamburg it is genuinely tight. A one-bedroom flat in Munich runs €1,400 to €1,700 in cold rent (Kaltmiete, before utilities) per month in 2026, which would consume nearly the entire Nettolohn of someone at this level. In Wolfsburg, a decent one-bedroom costs €700 to €900 cold, which changes things considerably.
Saving on this salary is possible in cheaper cities but requires real discipline. Holidays abroad, a car, and any financial buffer for emergencies are achievable but not effortless. If your partner also works, the household picture improves significantly. If you are supporting children on this salary alone, state support like Kindergeld (child benefit) and potentially Wohngeld (housing benefit) becomes part of the equation rather than a bonus.
Around €40,000 to €60,000 Gross Per Year
This is where life starts to feel genuinely comfortable for most people in most German cities. Net income ranges from roughly €2,300 to €3,200 per month for a single person in Steuerklasse I. The bracket covers an enormous range of professions: engineers a few years into their careers, experienced nurses, mid-level IT and project management roles, skilled tradespeople with seniority, and many positions in marketing and communications.
At this level, you can rent a decent flat without constant stress in most German cities, keep a car if your commute requires one, eat well, put something aside each month, and take a proper holiday once a year. Back in 2018 in Freiburg, I was at the lower end of this bracket and lived a genuinely good life, though I was not building wealth quickly. Going out for dinner did not require a calculation. I had a small emergency fund. Money was not a background anxiety in everyday decisions.
What this bracket does not easily stretch to is building significant savings while renting in an expensive city, or absorbing a major unexpected cost without feeling it. A broken car or a dentist bill not covered by Krankenversicherung (statutory health insurance) still stings. But the structural stress is much lower than in the bracket below.
Around €60,000 to €80,000 Gross Per Year
At this level, most people in Germany feel financially secure. Net income sits between roughly €3,200 and €4,000 per month. This is the territory of senior engineers, experienced doctors in employed positions, lawyers, experienced IT specialists, and managers in mid-sized companies.
Rent is no longer the dominant stressor in your monthly budget. You can save meaningfully, fund a pension supplement, travel regularly, and cover unexpected costs without renegotiating your whole financial plan. In high-cost cities like Munich this bracket is still not lavish, but it is stable and comfortable in a way the lower brackets rarely feel.
City-by-City Cost Differences
Where you live in Germany matters just as much as what you earn. The country spans an enormous range of living costs, and a salary that feels comfortable in Leipzig can feel genuinely tight in Munich.
Munich is the most expensive city in Germany by almost every measure. Cold rent (Kaltmiete) for a 70 to 80 square metre flat in central areas runs €2,000 to €2,500 per month in 2026, and even outer districts rarely fall below €1,500. A single person living comfortably without a car typically needs at least €3,000 to €3,500 net per month. Munich does pay well in technology, finance, and insurance, but the cost offset is persistent and real. High gross salary numbers look less impressive once you account for what that rent actually takes out of your Nettolohn.
Frankfurt tracks close behind. The financial sector keeps demand for housing permanently elevated, and central rents approach Munich levels. The salary premiums in banking and professional services exist for a reason. Frankfurt is simply not a city where a mid-range income stretches far.
Hamburg and Berlin sit a step below but are still significantly pricier than most of Germany. Berlin’s reputation as a cheap city for creatives is history. A decent two-room flat in a decent neighbourhood now runs €1,200 to €1,600 cold in 2026. Hamburg is consistently expensive and offers little relief in desirable districts.
Stuttgart, Düsseldorf, and Cologne form a middle tier. Each is more expensive than eastern Germany or smaller western cities, but less extreme than the top two. They also benefit from strong industry clusters: automotive in Stuttgart, trade and commerce in Düsseldorf and Cologne, which tends to push sectoral salaries up accordingly.
Wolfsburg, where I live now, is one of western Germany’s genuinely affordable cities. Volkswagen’s presence anchors the local economy, and skilled roles in manufacturing and engineering regularly reach €50,000 to €80,000 gross. Rent is manageable by any western German standard. A modern three-room flat typically costs €900 to €1,100 cold per month. The trade-off is real: Wolfsburg is a small city, and for anything beyond the basics, you are often heading to Hanover or Braunschweig.
Here is how the major cities compare in rough terms for 2026:
| City | Avg. Cold Rent (2-3 rooms) | Comfortable Monthly Budget (single) |
|---|---|---|
| Munich | €1,500–€2,500 | €3,000–€3,500+ net |
| Frankfurt | €1,400–€2,200 | €2,800–€3,200+ net |
| Hamburg | €1,200–€1,800 | €2,500–€3,000 net |
| Berlin | €1,200–€1,600 | €2,400–€2,800 net |
| Stuttgart | €1,100–€1,600 | €2,300–€2,700 net |
| Cologne | €1,000–€1,500 | €2,200–€2,600 net |
| Wolfsburg | €900–€1,100 | €1,900–€2,300 net |
| Leipzig/Halle | €700–€1,000 | €1,600–€2,000 net |
For a fuller breakdown of what daily life actually costs across Germany, the covers groceries, transport, and utilities city by city.
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis)
One thing I want to stress here: these rent figures are what you pay to a landlord before utilities, internet, and building fees. Add €200 to €350 on top for a realistic warm rent figure, and your total housing cost picture changes considerably. A €1,000 cold flat in Wolfsburg becomes roughly €1,250 to €1,350 all in. A €1,800 cold flat in Hamburg can easily clear €2,200 once everything is included.
This matters when you are reverse-engineering what salary you actually need. Many people anchor on gross salary numbers they see on job boards, then underestimate how much of that disappears before it reaches their account, and then underestimate again how much housing eats of what remains. The city you choose is arguably as important as the salary figure itself.
Someone earning €55,000 gross in Wolfsburg or Leipzig will likely have a more comfortable day-to-day life than someone earning €65,000 gross in Munich, once you run the full numbers. That is not a knock on Munich. The opportunities there are real, the network is dense, and certain industries genuinely pay premiums that offset the costs. But the offset is rarely as clean as people assume when they are still outside Germany looking in.
If you are at the stage of comparing offers from different cities, I would strongly recommend calculating your expected net salary first using a tool like Brutto-Netto-Rechner, then subtracting your estimated warm rent, and seeing what is left. That remainder is what you actually live on. That is the number that tells you whether a salary is good or not for where you are going to be.
Salary by Profession in Germany in 2026
Raw averages only tell you so much. Where your specific field actually lands matters far more when you’re deciding whether an offer makes sense. The figures below draw from StepStone, Gehalt.de, and sector reporting as of 2026. All figures are gross annual salary and represent the broad mid-range, not entry-level floors or senior peaks.
Software and IT remain among the strongest-paying fields outside medicine and law. A mid-level software engineer with three to five years of experience typically earns between €65,000 and €85,000 gross, depending on city, company size, and tech stack. Senior engineers in machine learning or cloud architecture regularly clear €90,000, and the big tech employers in Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg push well beyond that at senior levels.
Medicine pays well, but the route is long and the structure matters. A Facharzt (specialist physician) in a hospital typically earns €70,000 to €100,000 gross depending on specialty and seniority level. GPs running their own Praxis can earn considerably more, though they carry the overhead and financial risk of running a business. Dentists in private practice often do very well for the same reason.
Engineering in automotive, mechanical, and electrical sectors sits at the core of the German economy, and salaries reflect that. A Maschinenbauingenieur (mechanical engineer) with five years of experience earns roughly €55,000 to €75,000 gross. Senior roles at companies like Volkswagen, Siemens, or Bosch can reach €80,000 to €100,000 with performance bonuses added on top. Worth noting: with inflation running at 3.3% as of September 2026 according to Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis), static salaries are quietly losing ground, which makes Tarifvertrag (collective bargaining agreement) protections increasingly valuable in these sectors.
Teaching in public schools follows the Besoldungsgruppe (civil service pay grade) system, which varies by federal state. A fully qualified secondary school teacher in Bayern or Baden-Württemberg typically earns €55,000 to €70,000 gross mid-career. The pay is supported by Beamtenstatus (civil servant status), which brings strong job security and a generous pension structure. Teachers in eastern German states tend to earn somewhat less, though the gap has narrowed in recent years.
Nursing and care work sit at a frustrating crossroads of social importance and modest pay. A registered nurse in Germany earns roughly €36,000 to €48,000 gross depending on experience, employer, and which Tarifvertrag applies. The profession has seen some improvement through stronger collective agreements and political pressure, but the pay still does not match the demands of the role.
| Profession | Gross Annual Salary (Mid-Range, 2026) |
|---|---|
| Software Engineer (mid-level) | €65,000 – €85,000 |
| Facharzt (specialist doctor) | €70,000 – €100,000 |
| Maschinenbauingenieur (5 yrs) | €55,000 – €75,000 |
| Teacher (public sector, mid-career) | €55,000 – €70,000 |
| Registered Nurse | €36,000 – €48,000 |
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis)
Accounting and finance professionals occupy a wide range depending on whether you are in a small Mittelstand firm or a large publicly listed company. A Steuerberater (tax advisor) with their own client base earns anywhere from €60,000 to €90,000. A financial controller at a mid-sized company typically sits between €55,000 and €75,000 gross. Investment banking and corporate finance roles in Frankfurt can push well beyond €100,000 when you factor in bonuses, but those roles come with the kind of hours that make the number feel less impressive in practice.
Skilled trades are genuinely worth mentioning here because the narrative around vocational careers being second-tier financially is increasingly outdated. An experienced Elektriker (electrician) or Installateur (plumber) running their own small operation or working as a Meister (master craftsperson) can comfortably earn €50,000 to €65,000 gross. There is also strong demand across Germany right now, which means negotiating leverage that did not exist a decade ago. In Wolfsburg I have spoken to tradespeople who are booked out months in advance and turning down work. That kind of demand has a way of pushing wages upward over time.
Sales and marketing roles are harder to generalize because commission structures vary so much. A B2B sales manager at a technology or industrial company might earn €60,000 base plus another €15,000 to €25,000 in variable pay. Pure marketing roles without a sales component tend to land between €45,000 and €65,000 depending on seniority and industry. The gap between a marketing coordinator at a small agency and a senior brand manager at a consumer goods company like Henkel or Beiersdorf is significant.
Logistics and supply chain work has gained a lot of attention post-pandemic as companies realized how exposed their operations were. A supply chain manager with solid experience earns around €60,000 to €80,000 gross at a larger firm. Warehouse and operational roles sit much lower, typically €28,000 to €38,000, though many are covered by Tarifverträge that at least provide predictable raises and regulated working hours